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Article History

Received: 13 October 2025

Accepted: 2 March 2026

First Online: 16 March 2026

Declarations

:

: This study does not involve human participants, human biological material, or animal subjects. The experimental evaluation was conducted using publicly available benchmark datasets and synthetically generated digital forensic samples. Therefore, formal ethical approval from an institutional review board or ethics committee was not required. This research did not involve human participants, interviews, surveys, or personal data collection. All datasets used in the experimental evaluation (e.g., publicly available email and intrusion detection datasets) are anonymized and open-access. Consequently, consent to participate was not applicable to this study.

: The authors confirm that the manuscript contains no individual person’s data in any form (including images, videos, or identifiable case information). All data used are either publicly available, anonymized, or synthetically generated. Therefore, consent to publish is not required.

: During the preparation of this work the authors used ChatGPT and Perplexity AI to summarize or elaborate some topics. After using this tool/service, the authors reviewed and edited the content as required and take full responsibility for the content of the published article.

: The authors declare no competing interests.