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Article History

Received: 19 September 2025

Accepted: 19 December 2025

First Online: 6 January 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no conflict of interests.

: This study utilized the publicly available Keratoconus Detection dataset ( ), which contains fully anonymized and de-identified corneal topography images released solely for research purposes. As the dataset does not include any personally identifiable information, and all data were collected under approved ethical guidelines by the original contributors, additional institutional review board (IRB) approval or patient consent was not required for this secondary analysis. All procedures complied with relevant ethical principles and data protection regulations, including the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and equivalent international standards.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.