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Article History

Received: 15 July 2025

Accepted: 6 November 2025

First Online: 14 November 2025

Declarations

:

: Jake Dove is an employee of Medtronic and his contributions to this study were limited to data analysis and interpretation of the data. He was not involved in the collection of data or any other aspect of the study to ensure objectivity and minimize potential conflicts of interest. Michael Bernstein has previously been employed by Nellcor (now Covidien), where he managed the development of pulse oximeters. He also served as a consultant for multiple medical device companies, including industry leaders, through Physio Monitor, specializing in pulse oximetry design. He has also contributed to the development of clinical parameter simulators, including EKG, SpO₂, NIBP, IBP, and EEG, for various companies, including pulse oximetry systems for Fluke and Siemens Electromedical Group (now Draeger Medical). Michael Bernstein is also a partner for an in vivo human testing laboratory, the Hypoxia Lab at Shenzhen University, which focuses on SpO₂ and cuffless NIBP research. Dr. John Feiner performs pulse oximetry accuracy studies for various companies. He does not receive direct payment from these companies. He did not receive direct payment for this work. All other authors declare they have no financial interests or disclosures.

: The controlled desaturation studies were performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Institutional Review Board of the University of California, San Francisco.

: Written informed consent was obtained from each adult volunteer prior to their participation in the controlled desaturation studies.

: The authors affirm that the human research participants provided informed consent for the publication of the images in Figure(s) 2, 4, and 5.