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Article History

Received: 9 December 2025

Accepted: 10 February 2026

First Online: 3 March 2026

Declarations

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: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare in relation to this article. The 3-year declaration of interest statement of this research team is as follows: In the last three years, all authors have received research and/or consultancy funding from multiple sources, including via hypothecated taxes from gambling revenue. CH has received research funding from the New Zealand Ministry of Health, Victorian Department of Justice and Community Safety, and Dutch Research Council (ZonMw). AT has received funding from Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation, Victorian Department of Justice and Community Safety, Office of Responsible Gambling, New South Wales, Office of Liquor and Gaming Regulation, Queensland, the New Zealand Ministry of Health, Gambling Research Australia and Outside Opinion. ND has received research funding from the Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation, Victorian Department of Justice and Community Safety, New South Wales Office of Responsible Gambling, Svenska Spel’s Independent Research Council, Health Research Council of New Zealand, New Zealand Ministry of Health, and Dutch Research Council (ZonMw). SM has received research funding from the Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation, Victorian Department of Justice and Community Safety, New South Wales Office of Responsible Gambling, Health Research Council of New Zealand, New Zealand Ministry of Health, and Dutch Research Council (ZonMw). None of the authors have knowingly received research funding from the gambling, tobacco, or alcohol industries or any industry-sponsored organisation.