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Authors
Liu, Xinyi
Han, Xiao
Chen, Jianjun
Zhou, Guanghua
Li, Guohong
Fan, Xianqun
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China (72404183)
National Natural Science Foundation of China,China (72293585)
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Article History
Received: 12 September 2025
Accepted: 28 June 2026
First Online: 20 July 2026
Declarations
Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate: This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the School of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (IRB SJUPN-2024-033-KS1). The analysis used a de-identified, institution-level dataset from the National Health Commission’s 2020 Digitalization Survey, with no direct contact with patients or collection of identifiable personal data. In accordance with international ethics guidance permitting consent modifications/waivers for minimal-risk secondary use of de-identified data, the IRB determined that obtaining written informed consent from individual human participants was not required and granted a waiver of consent (CIOMS International Ethical Guidelines, Guideline 10; WMA Declaration of Helsinki 2013).
Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Clinical Trial Number: Not applicable.
