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Authors
Li, Yan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9824-5457
Guo, Luyang https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4149-7132
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Article History
Received: 21 March 2025
Accepted: 13 August 2025
First Online: 5 September 2025
Compliance with Ethical Standards
:
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: This study used publicly available secondary data from the OECD PISA database. Informed consent procedures were implemented by each participating country according to their national regulations. All data are anonymized before public release by the OECD.
