Document is current

Article History

Received: 28 July 2025

Accepted: 25 November 2025

First Online: 4 December 2025

Declarations

:

: The research was reviewed by the University College London ethics committee (ref.: 1837).

: Informed consent to (a) participate in the study and (b) for data to be published was attained from respondent during the data collection process by the data providers - University of Essex, Institute for Social and Economic Research (see Understanding Society: The UK Household Longitudinal Study Harmonised British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) User Guide).

: Data in the study are from Understanding Society: The UK Household Longitudinal Study, which is led by the Institute for Social and Economic Research at the University of Essex and funded by the Economic and Social Research Council [Grant Number: ES/M008592/1]. The datasets analyzed during the current study are publicly available in the UK Data Service repository: ‘Understanding Society: Waves 1-14, 2009-2023 and Harmonised BHPS: Waves 1-18, 1991-2009’ (10.5255/UKDA-SN-6614-20) and ‘Understanding Society: COVID-19 Study, 2020-2021’ (10.5255/UKDA-SN-8644-11). Restrictions apply to the data containing merged geographic identifiers which can only be accessed under more restrictive conditions: ‘Understanding Society: Waves 1-14, 2009-2023: Special Licence Access, Census 2021 Lower Layer Super Output Areas’ (10.5255/UKDA-SN-9169-3) and ‘Understanding Society: COVID-19 Study, 2020-2021: Special Licence Access, Census 2011 Lower Layer Super Output Areas’ (10.5255/UKDA-SN-8663-7).

: The authors declare no competing interests.