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Article History

Received: 7 August 2025

Accepted: 25 November 2025

First Online: 5 December 2025

Declarations

:

: All procedures complied with the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association (APA) for research involving human participants. At the time of data collection in 2010, Taiwan had not yet institutionalized a formal mechanism for Institutional Review Board (IRB) review, especially in educational research settings. Nonetheless, written informed consent was obtained from both adolescents and their parents prior to participation. The study was also financially supported by the National Science Council (NSC) of Taiwan (NSC 99-2410-H-009-020), which provided official oversight and recognized the study's scholarly legitimacy during that period.

: Written informed consent was obtained from all adolescent participants and their parents prior to participation. All consent forms were collected in paper format.

: During the preparation of this work, the first author used ChatGPT (OpenAI) and Google Translate to improve grammatical accuracy, enhance language clarity, and assist in translating the original manuscript drafted in Chinese into English. After using these tools, the authors carefully reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the integrity and accuracy of the final manuscript.

: The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to participant confidentiality and restrictions approved by the institutional review board, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

: The authors declare no competing interests.