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Article History

Received: 15 November 2025

Accepted: 29 December 2025

First Online: 10 February 2026

Declarations

:

: The studies involving humans were approved by Gail Daumit, M.D., M.H.S., Johns Hopkins Medicine Institutional Review Board. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements.

: The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

: Financial interests: L. S. has received research and travel support from GT Medical Technologies Inc. and serves as a consultant for GT Medical Technologies. K. R. has received grant funding from Accuray, Canon, Icotec, and GammaTile; honorarium for a speaking engagement from Accuray; and travel support from Brainlab and Icotec. She also has a patent under development with Canon and serves on the Data Safety Monitoring Board for BioMimetix. C. M.J. is a cofounder of Egret Therapeutics with equity interests and has received research support from Grifols and Biohaven. M. L. has received consulting fees from Biohaven, Global Coalition for Adaptive Research (GCAP), CraniUS, Hemispherian, Hoth, Insightec, MediFlix, Merck, Novocure, Noxxon, Sanianoia, Stryker, and VBI; grant funding from Arbor, Accuray, and Biohaven; honorarium from Insightec; and holds ownership interest in Egret Therapeutics.D. P. serves or has served as a scientific or strategic advisor or consultant for Amgen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Compugen, Immunomic Therapeutics, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Normunity, RAPT Therapeutics (formerly FLX Bio), Regeneron (consulting ended August 2025), Takeda Pharmaceuticals, and Tizona LLC, including short-term consulting for Bristol-Myers Squibb (ended June 2025). He is a founder or equity holder in Clasp Therapeutics (formerly ManaT Bio), Dracen Pharmaceuticals, Enara Bio (formerly Ervaxx Ltd.), RAPT Therapeutics, and Tizona LLC. He receives patent royalties through his institution from Bristol-Myers Squibb and Immunomic Therapeutics, and receives research support from Bristol-Myers Squibb, Compugen, and Immunomic Therapeutics. He also has an equity relationship with Catalio Capital Management and maintains a material transfer agreement with Tempest Therapeutics.L.R.K. has received research support from Bristol-Myers Squibb, Incyte, Novartis, and Novocure; serves on the Study Steering Committee for Novocure; and has received speaking honoraria from Accuray.H.Q., C. E., P. H., S. G., and S. P. declare they have no financial interests.