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Article History

Received: 12 November 2025

Accepted: 19 February 2026

First Online: 25 February 2026

Declarations

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: JDB has an equity position in Treovir Inc., an oHSV clinical stage company and UpFront Diagnostics. JDB is also on the Centile Bioscience, QV Bioelectronics and NeuroX1 boards of scientific advisors and has equity positions in Barinthus Biotherapeutics. JMM has the following relationships which may pose or be perceived as posing a financial conflict of interest; he is a board and equity holding member, in Aettis, Inc. and may receive royalties. The company holds frozen oncolytic viral stocks. Mustang Bio Tech is licensing the Intellectual Property (IP) of C134 an oncolytic viral Therapy. Markert is blinded to the conditions for the C134 clinical trials. He is a shareholder for a privately held Small Business Innovation Research LLC, Treovir, Inc., concerning G207 oncolytic viral therapy now in clinical trial. Merck, Inc. provides industry grant support by providing Keytruda (pembrolizumab) for a clinical trial of M032 oncolytic virotherapy now in clinical trial. Additionally, JMM is a listee on IP- (1) related to a cancer immunotherapy system, and (2) to a novel immuno-virotherapeutic strategy targeting the glioma secretome. This IP has been filed by in8Bio (formerly Incysus, Ltd.) and has royalty earning potential. GKF holds an equity interest in Synaptive Medical, Inc. and a patent for methods and formulations related to the intrathecal delivery of oncolytic virus He received prior funding to his institution from Pfizer, Eisai, and E.R. Squibb & Sons for research unrelated to the content of this manuscript.