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Article History

Received: 9 January 2023

Accepted: 31 August 2025

First Online: 17 September 2025

Declarations

:

: The Directorate for Higher Education and Skills (previously Skills Norway) provided the data for the submitted study. Except for that, the authors declared no potential conflicts of financial interest or non-financial interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

: This research discharges its duty imposed by the European Economic Area (EEA)’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) by following the Norwegian Centre for Research Data (NSD)’s notification test. The Norwegian language test data provided by Skills Norway contains only aggregated and de-personalized datasets with no possibility of back-tracing to any particular participant. As a result, no identifiable personal data was collected or used at any stage of this research. The NSD’s assessment letter outlines the agency’s decision not to subject this project to the GDPR notification. The NSD decision letter also satisfies the University of Oslo’s ethical approval requirement and concludes the approval process.