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Authors
Hoes, Emma
Clemm, Bernhard
Gessler, Theresa
Qian, Sijia
Wojcieszak, Magdalena
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
University of Zurich
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Article History
Accepted: 2 October 2025
First Online: 10 November 2025
Declarations
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: M.W. is part of the US 2020 Facebook and Instagram Election Study, which is a pro bono and fully independent research collaboration of researchers with Meta. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.
: This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of California, Davis. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards outlined in the American Political Science Association’s Principles and Guidance for Human Subjects Research.
