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Authors
Kroneberg, Clemens https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8838-1087
Ernst, André
Nägel, Christof https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2161-539X
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Universität zu Köln
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Article History
Received: 19 August 2025
Accepted: 24 November 2025
First Online: 16 February 2026
Declarations
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: All procedures complied with the guidelines of the German Research Foundation (DFG) and were approved by the Mannheim Centre for European Social Research (MZES) and the data protection officer of the University of Mannheim. z,2 The linkage of survey data with police crime statistics was approved by the data protection officer of the University of Cologne. In the context of replication study, a largely identical questionnaire and procedure was submitted to an institutional review board at the University of Cologne in 2024 and received a positive decision.
: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants of the study. As participants were under the age of 18, parental consent was also obtained.
: On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
