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Article History

Received: 18 March 2025

Accepted: 27 November 2025

First Online: 5 February 2026

Declarations

:

: The current study used publicly available secondary data. In the original OECD Survey on Social and Emotional Skills data collection, informed consent was obtained from all individual participants, including authorization from educational institutions, legal guardians, and student participants. The authors of the current study had no direct contact with participants and analyzed only de-identified data.

: This study involved secondary analysis of publicly available de-identified data from the 2023 OECD Survey on Social and Emotional Skills (SSES). The original data collection was conducted by the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation in accordance with ethical standards for research involving minors. As our study utilized only publicly available secondary data, additional ethical approval for our specific analyses was not required as per institutional guidelines.

: Not applicable.

: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.