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Authors
Hall, Todd https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8012-4104
Hailey, Chantal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2951-5396
Prim, Jeremy
Easley, Janeria https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3600-1916
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Summer Institute for Computational Social Science (SICSS)-Howard/Mathematica (Summer Institute for Computational Social Science (SICSS)-Howard/Mathematica)
Russell Sage Foundation (Russell Sage Foundation)
Social Science Research Council (Social Science Research Council)
Institute of Education Sciences (R305B200005)
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD042849)
National Academy of Education (National Academy of Education)
Spencer Foundation (Spencer Foundation)
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Article History
Received: 12 May 2025
Accepted: 13 August 2025
First Online: 3 January 2026
Declarations
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: On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
: The UC Davis IRB Administration determined that this study protocol was IRB exempt (IRB ID # 1910484-1).
: All study participants completed an informed consent form that described the purpose of the study, the steps taken to preserve confidentiality, and an explanation that their participation in this research was completely voluntary, author contact information, and contact information for the IRB. Participants received $4 in compensation for their time completing the survey.
