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Article History

Received: 26 June 2024

Accepted: 2 October 2024

First Online: 24 October 2024

Declarations

:

: The present research study was done in accordance with the ADNI data use agreement and its undertaking approved by the regional ethics committee (REK 2018/1127).

: Esten H. Leonardsen has received an honorarium for lecturing from Lundbeck AS. He is also the CTO and a major shareholder in baba.vision, a company developing clinical tools for precision diagnostics in neurological disorders. Lars T. Westlye is a shareholder in baba.vision. Karl T. Kalleberg is a shareholder of Age Labs, a company focused on developing biomarkers for age-related diseases.

: Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative Consortium investigators:Michael Weiner 5 , Paul Aisen 6 , Ronald Petersen 7 , Clifford R. Jack Jr 7 , William Jagust 8 , John Q. Trojanowski 9 , Arthur W. Toga 10 , Laurel Beckett 11 , Robert C. Green 12 , Andrew J. Saykin 13 , John C. Morris 14 , Leslie M. Shaw 9 , Enchi Liu 15 , Tom Montine 16 , Ronald G. Thomas 6 , Michael Donohue 6 , Sarah Walter 6 , Devon Gessert 6 , Tamie Sather 6 , Gus Jiminez 6 , Danielle Harvey 11 , Matthew Bernstein 6 , Nick Fox 17 , Paul Thompson 18 , Norbert Schuff 19 , Charles DeCarli 11 , Bret Borowski 7 , Jeff Gunter 7 , Matt Senjem 7 , Prashanthi Vemuri 7 , David Jones 7 , Kejal Kantarci 7 , Chad Ward 7 , Robert A. Koeppe 20 , Norm Foster 21 , Eric M. Reiman 22 , Kewei Chen 22 , Chet Mathis 23 , Susan Landau 8 , Nigel J. Cairns 24 , Erin Householder 10 , Lisa Taylor Reinwald 24 , Virginia Lee 25 , Magdalena Korecka 25 , Michal Figurski 25 , Karen Crawford 10 , Scott Neu 10 , Tatiana M. Foroud 13 , Steven Potkin 26 , Li Shen 13 , Faber Kelley 13 , Sungeun Kim 13 , Kwangsik Nho 13 , Zaven Kachaturian 27 , Richard Frank 28 , Peter J. Snyder 29 , Susan Molchan 30 , Jeffrey Kaye 31 , Joseph Quinn 31 , Betty Lind 31 , Raina Carter 31 , Sara Dolen 31 , Lon S. Schneider 10 , Sonia Pawluczyk 10 , Mauricio Becerra 10 , Liberty Teodoro 10 , Bryan M. Spann 10 , James Brewer 6 , Helen Vanderswag 6 , Adam Fleisher 6 , Judith L. Heidebrink 20 , Joanne L. Lord 20 , Ronald Petersen 7 , Sara S. Mason 7 , Colleen S. Albers 7 , David Knopman 7 , Kris Johnson 7 , Rachelle S. Doody 32 , Javier Villanueva Meyer 32 , Munir Chowdhury 32 , Susan Rountree 32 , Mimi Dang 32 , Yaakov Stern 33 , Lawrence S. Honig 33 , Karen L. Bell 33 , Beau Ances 24 , Maria Carroll 24 , Sue Leon 24 , Erin Householder 24 , Mark A. Mintun 24 , Stacy Schneider 24 , Angela Oliver 34 , Randall Griffith 34 , David Clark 34 , David Geldmacher 34 , John Brockington 34 , Erik Roberson 34 , Hillel Grossman 35 , Effie Mitsis 35 , Leyla deToledo-Morrell 36 , Raj C. Shah 36 , Ranjan Duara 37 , Daniel Varon 37 , Maria T. Greig 37 , Peggy Roberts 37 , Marilyn Albert 38 , Chiadi Onyike 38 , Daniel D’Agostino II 38 , Stephanie Kielb 38 , James E. Galvin 39 , Dana M. Pogorele 39 , Brittany Cerbone 39 , Christina A. Michel 39 , Henry Rusinek 39 , Mony J. de Leon 39 , Lidia Glodzik 39 , Susan De Santi 39 , P. Murali Doraiswamy 40 , Jeffrey R. Petrella 40 , Terence Z. Wong 40 , Steven E. Arnold 9 , Jason H. Karlawish 9 , David A. Wolk 23 , Charles D. Smith 41 , Greg Jicha 41 , Peter Hardy 41 , Partha Sinha 41 , Elizabeth Oates 41 , Gary Conrad 41 , Oscar L. Lopez 23 , MaryAnn Oakley 23 , Donna M. Simpson 23 , Anton P. Porsteinsson 42 , Bonnie S. Goldstein 42 , Kim Martin 42 , Kelly M. Makino 42 , M. Saleem Ismail 42 , Connie Brand 42 , Ruth A. Mulnard 26 , Gaby Thai 26 , Catherine Mc Adams Ortiz 26 , Kyle Womack 43 , Dana Mathews 43 , Mary Quiceno 43 , Ramon Diaz Arrastia 43 , Richard King 43 , Myron Weiner 43 , Kristen Martin Cook 43 , Michael DeVous 43 , Allan I. Levey 44 , James J. Lah 44 , Janet S. Cellar 44 , Jeffrey M. Burns 45 , Heather S. Anderson 45 , Russell H. Swerdlow 45 , Liana Apostolova 46 , Kathleen Tingus 46 , Ellen Woo 46 , Daniel H. S. Silverman 46 , Po H. Lu 46 , George Bartzokis 46 , Neill R. Graff Radford 47 , Francine Parfitt 47 , Tracy Kendall 47 , Heather Johnson 47 , Martin R. Farlow 13 , Ann Marie Hake 13 , Brandy R. Matthews 13 , Scott Herring 13 , Cynthia Hunt 13 , Christopher H. van Dyck 48 , Richard E. Carson 48 , Martha G. MacAvoy 48 , Howard Chertkow 49 , Howard Bergman 49 , Chris Hosein 49 , Sandra Black 50 , Bojana Stefanovic 50 , Curtis Caldwell 50 , Ging Yuek Robin Hsiung 51 , Howard Feldman 51 , Benita Mudge 51 , Michele Assaly Past 51 , Andrew Kertesz 52 , John Rogers 52 , Dick Trost 52 , Charles Bernick 53 , Donna Munic 53 , Diana Kerwin 54 , Marek Marsel Mesulam 54 , Kristine Lipowski 54 , Chuang Kuo Wu 54 , Nancy Johnson 54 , Carl Sadowsky 55 , Walter Martinez 55 , Teresa Villena 55 , Raymond Scott Turner 56 , Kathleen Johnson 56 , Brigid Reynolds 56 , Reisa A. Sperling 12 , Keith A. Johnson 12 , Gad Marshall 12 , Meghan Frey 12 , Jerome Yesavage 57 , Joy L. Taylor 57 , Barton Lane 57 , Allyson Rosen 57 , Jared Tinklenberg 57 , Marwan N. Sabbagh 58 , Christine M. Belden 58 , Sandra A. Jacobson 58 , Sherye A. Sirrel 58 , Neil Kowall 58 , Ronald Killiany 59 , Andrew E. Budson 59 , Alexander Norbash 59 , Patricia Lynn Johnson 59 , Thomas O. Obisesan 60 , Saba Wolday 60 , Joanne Allard 60 , Alan Lerner 61 , Paula Ogrocki 61 , Leon Hudson 61 , Evan Fletcher 62 , Owen Carmichael 62 , John Olichney 62 , Charles DeCarli 62 , Smita Kittur 63 , Michael Borrie 64 , T. Y. Lee 64 , Rob Bartha 64 , Sterling Johnson 65 , Sanjay Asthana 65 , Cynthia M. Carlsson 65 , Steven G. Potkin 66 , Adrian Preda 66 , Dana Nguyen 66 , Pierre Tariot 22 , Adam Fleisher 22 , Stephanie Reeder 22 , Vernice Bates 67 , Horacio Capote 67 , Michelle Rainka 67 , Douglas W. Scharre 68 , Maria Kataki 68 , Anahita Adeli 68 , Earl A. Zimmerman 69 , Dzintra Celmins 69 , Alice D. Brown 69 , Godfrey D. Pearlson 70 , Karen Blank 70 , Karen Anderson 70 , Robert B. Santulli 71 , Tamar J. Kitzmiller 71 , Eben S. Schwartz 71 , Kaycee M. Sink 72 , Jeff D. Williamson 72 , Pradeep Garg 72 , Franklin Watkins 72 , Brian R. Ott 73 , Henry Querfurth 73 , Geoffrey Tremont 73 , Stephen Salloway 74 , Paul Malloy 74 , Stephen Correia 74 , Howard J. Rosen 12 , Bruce L. Miller 12 , Jacobo Mintzer 75 , Kenneth Spicer 75 , David Bachman 75 , Elizabether Finger 76 , Stephen Pasternak 76 , Irina Rachinsky 76 , John Rogers 76 , Andrew Kertesz 76 , Dick Drost 76 , Nunzio Pomara 77 , Raymundo Hernando 77 , Antero Sarrael 77 , Susan K. Schultz 78 , Laura L. Boles Ponto 78 , Hyungsub Shim 78 , Karen Elizabeth Smith 78 , Norman Relkin 79 , Gloria Chaing 79 , Lisa Raudin 79 , Amanda Smith 80 , Kristin Fargher 80 & Balebail Ashok Raj 80 5 UC San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. 6 University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA. 7 Mayo Clinic, Rochester, NY, USA. 8 UC Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA. 9 University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA. 10 University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. 11 Davis, Davis, CA, USA. 12 Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. 13 Indiana University, Bloomington, IND, USA. 14 Janssen Alzheimer Immunotherapy, South San Francisco, CA, USA. 15 University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA. 16 University of London, London, UK. 17 USC School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA. 18 UCSF MRI, San Francisco, CA, USA. 19 University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA. 20 University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. 21 Banner Alzheimer’s Institute, Phoenix, AZ, USA. 22 University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. 23 Washington University St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA. 24 UPenn School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA. 25 University of California, Irvine, CA, USA. 26 Khachaturian, Radebaugh & Associates, Inc and Alzheimer’s Association’s Ronald and Nancy Reagan’s Research Institute, Chicago, IL, USA. 27 General Electric, Boston, MA, USA. 28 Brown University, Providence, RI, USA. 29 National Institute on Aging/National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA. 30 Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA. 31 Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA. 32 Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA. 33 University of Alabama Birmingham, Birmingham, MO, USA. 34 Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA. 35 Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA. 36 Wien Center, Vienna, Austria. 37 Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA. 38 New York University, New York, NY, USA. 39 Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA. 40 University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA. 41 University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA. 42 University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX, USA. 43 Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA. 44 University of Kansas, Medical Center, Lawrence, KS, USA. 45 University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA. 46 Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA. 47 Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA. 48 McGill Univ., Montreal Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, WI, USA. 49 Sunnybrook Health Sciences, Toronto, ON, Canada. 50 U.B.C. Clinic for AD & Related Disorders, British Columbia, BC, Canada. 51 Cognitive Neurology St. Joseph’s, Toronto, ON, Canada. 52 Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Las Vegas, NV, USA. 53 Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA. 54 Premiere Research Inst Palm Beach Neurology, West Palm Beach, FL, USA. 55 Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA. 56 Stanford University, Santa Clara County, CA, USA. 57 Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, AZ, USA. 58 Boston University, Boston, MA, USA. 59 Howard University, Washington, DC, USA. 60 Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA. 61 University of California, Davis Sacramento, CA, USA. 62 Neurological Care of CNY, New York, NY, USA. 63 Parkwood Hospital, Parkwood, CA, USA. 64 University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA. 65 University of California, Irvine BIC, Irvine, CA, USA. 66 Dent Neurologic Institute, Amherst, MA, USA. 67 Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA. 68 Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, USA. 69 Hartford Hosp, Olin Neuropsychiatry Research Center, Hartford, CT, USA. 70 Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center, Albany, NY, USA. 71 Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC, USA. 72 Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA. 73 Butler Hospital, Providence, RI, USA. 74 Medical University South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA. 75 St. Joseph’s Health Care, Toronto, ON, Canada. 76 Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, SC, USA. 77 University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA. 78 Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA. 79 University of South Florida: USF Health Byrd Alzheimer’s Institute, Tampa, FL, USA.