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Article History

Received: 15 May 2025

Accepted: 30 October 2025

First Online: 19 November 2025

Declarations

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: Details of primer pairs for 16 S rRNA, aioA , arrA , and clone library (Table ); Correlations of relative abundances of major aioA OTUs with the dissolved As(V), As(III), Fe(III), and Fe(II) concentrations during the flooding and drainage periods in treatments with As and As + Fh (Table ); Putative bacteria associated with soil reduction and oxidation detected by FAPROTAX (Table ); Changes in (A) pH and (B) Eh values along the soil profile during flooding and drainage period (Fig. ); The concentration of (A) SO 4 2− and NO 3 − in different treatments during flooding and drainage period (Fig. ); The concentrations of adsorbed and bounded with iron oxides As(III) and As(V) in paddy soil after flooding and drainage in different treatments (Fig. ); Principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) of Bray–Curtis dissimilarity between samples for (A) arrA and (B) aioA (Fig. ); Relative abundance of major aioA OTUs with a minimum relative abundance greater than 1% in different treatments with time (Fig. ); Relative abundance of bacterial genera with a minimum relative abundance greater than 1% in different treatments (Fig. ); Extractable Fe, Amorphous iron oxide (Fe o ), Organic complex iron (Fe p ), and Free iron oxide (Fe d ) (Fig. ); The relationships between genes involved in As transformation and different As species and dissolved total Fe and As concentrations (Fig. ).

: The authors declare no competing financial interests.