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Article History

Received: 3 August 2025

Accepted: 27 April 2026

First Online: 22 May 2026

Declarations

:

: At the time of the research, the authors conducting fieldwork on the Chinese side did not have an academic affiliation, making it impossible for them to apply for institutional ethics approval. On the Vietnamese side, the authors were affiliated with a nongovernmental organisation and similarly did not have access to a university Institutional Review Board (IRB). Nonetheless, all research was conducted in accordance with established ethical principles, including informed consent, voluntary participation, and the protection of participants’ confidentiality and safety. All members of the research team are trained in trauma-informed research methods and have extensive experience conducting ethically grounded fieldwork in sensitive and high-risk environments.

: In line with ethical principles governing research with vulnerable populations—particularly survivors of trafficking in persons—stringent safeguards were embedded in both the design and implementation of this study. Participant recruitment was conducted through trusted intermediaries: members of civil society anti-trafficking teams operating in Cambodia and Myanmar who are trained in trauma-informed practices. These individuals facilitated access to the survey link and supported participants throughout the process. All potential participants received a clear and accessible information sheet outlining the voluntary nature of the study, its purpose, the intended use of the data, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. For interview participants, additional ethical precautions were taken to ensure anonymity, confidentiality, and emotional safety. Only survivors who were in secure environments were invited to participate, and all were assured that involvement in the study would not expose them to any risks or harm. Informed consent was obtained from all participants following a thorough explanation of the research objectives and procedures. Efforts were made to minimise potential distress during interviews, including the provision of a supportive setting and repeated reminders that participants could pause or withdraw at any point.

: All participants provided informed consent for the publication of anonymised data. No identifying information is included in the study, and every effort was made to protect participants’ privacy and confidentiality.

: The authors declare no competing interests.