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Article History

Received: 23 May 2025

Accepted: 20 September 2025

First Online: 10 November 2025

Declarations

:

: All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000. This study received ethics approval from the Deakin University Human Research Ethics Committee (reference 2024/HE000278).

: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare in relation to this article. The 3-year declaration of interest statement of this research team is as follows: In the last 3 years, all authors have received research and/or consultancy funding from multiple sources, including via hypothecated taxes from gambling revenue. CH, SD, BT, SC, and KQ have received research funding from the New Zealand Ministry of Health. ND has received research funding from the Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation, New South Wales Office of Responsible Gambling, Svenska Spel’s Independent Research Council, Health Research Council of New Zealand, and New Zealand Ministry of Health. SM has received research funding from the Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation, New South Wales Office of Responsible Gambling, Health Research Council of New Zealand, and the New Zealand Ministry of Health. AT has received research funding from the Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation, New Zealand Ministry of Health, Outside Opinion, Queensland Office of Liquor and Gaming Regulation, New South Wales Office of Responsible Gambling, and Gambling Research Australia and the Self Help Addiction Resource Centre. None of the authors has knowingly received research funding from the gambling, tobacco, or alcohol industries or any industry-sponsored organisation.