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Article History

Received: 2 April 2025

Accepted: 13 September 2025

First Online: 22 October 2025

Declarations

Disclaimer: Access to the data used in this study was provided by Stats NZ under conditions designed to give effect to the security and confidentiality provisions of the Data and Statistics Act 2022. The results presented in this study are the work of the authors, not Stats NZ or individual data suppliers. These results are not official statistics. They have been created for research purposes from the Integrated Data Infrastructure which is carefully managed by Stats NZ. For more information about the IDI please visit https://www.stats.govt.nz/integrated-data/. As required by Statistics New Zealand’s microdata confidentiality protocols, all unweighted counts of individuals and households reported in this study have been randomly rounded to base 3; proportions have been calculated based on rounded counts. The opinions, findings, recommendations, and conclusions expressed in this study are those of the authors, not Statistics NZ, Toi Mai, or Motu Economic & Public Policy Research.