Document is current
Any future updates will be listed below
-
Authors
Blackman, Alexandra Domike https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4542-1904
Şaşmaz, Aytuğ https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8942-0666
Singh, Renu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2616-6618
Williamson, Scott https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0769-6197
-
Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
U.S.-Middle East Partnership Initiative (U.S.-Middle East Partnership Initiative)
Democracy International (Democracy International)
Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Stanford University (Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Stanford University)
Abbasi Program in Islamic Studies (Abbasi Program in Islamic Studies)
Hicham Alaoui Foundation (Hicham Alaoui Foundation)
Program on Governance & Local Development (Program on Governance & Local Development)
- License Information
-
More Information
Article History
Received: 7 October 2024
Accepted: 10 October 2025
First Online: 6 December 2025
Declarations
:
: Ethical approval for the survey was attained at Stanford University and Harvard University; ethical approval for interviews was attained at the University of Oxford and Durham University.
: The authors report no competing interests.
