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Authors
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China (72273037)
National Social Science Fund of China (24BJY181)
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Article History
Received: 31 October 2025
Accepted: 25 April 2026
First Online: 9 May 2026
Declarations
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: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
: This study used publicly available, de-identified data from China Household Income Project (CHIP). The Beijing Normal University Ethics Committee confirmed that the use of this anonymized dataset for research purposes did not require ethical approval.
: This study utilized publicly available, anonymized data and therefore did not require participant informed consent, as confirmed by the Sun Yat-sen University Ethics Committee and Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen) Ethics Committee.
