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Article History

Received: 18 December 2024

Accepted: 13 August 2025

First Online: 18 October 2025

Declarations

:

: This study used publicly available, de-identified secondary data from the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS 2018). As no identifiable personal information was accessed and no primary data collection was conducted, ethical approval was not required in accordance with institutional guidelines and national regulations.

: The data used in this study were collected by the OECD through the TALIS 2018 survey. Informed consent was obtained by the original data collectors in accordance with their ethical procedures. As this study involved secondary analysis of anonymized, publicly available data, no additional informed consent was required.

: The authors report no conflicting interests to declare.