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Authors
Li, Xiangyu https://orcid.org/0009-0004-3782-8618
Shi, Xiaobo
Poudel, Prem Prasad
Joshi, Dirgha Raj
Chapai, Krishna Prasad Sharma
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
China's Ministry of Education Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Fund Project (23YJC880089)
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Article History
Received: 29 September 2024
Accepted: 13 March 2026
First Online: 31 March 2026
Declarations
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: All participants (and/or their parents or legal guardians) provided informed consent, including consent for the publication of anonymized data and information for academic research purposes.
: As this study utilized exclusively de-identified, publicly accessible data from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) database, no direct participant contact occurred. The original PISA surveys obtained informed consent from all participants (or their guardians) following OECD ethical protocols and national regulations. Consequently, additional informed consent was neither feasible nor required for this secondary analysis. All data were accessed and analyzed in strict compliance with OECD PISA data usage guidelines, which prohibit re-identification attempts.
: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
