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Article History

Accepted: 30 January 2026

First Online: 13 February 2026

Declarations

:

: This study is a secondary analysis of publicly available, anonymized data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) cycles 2018 and 2022. The original data collection was conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and its national partners. All ethical procedures for the PISA assessments, including obtaining informed consent from students and their parents or legal guardians, were handled by the OECD and the respective national centers in accordance with local laws and international ethical guidelines. As this research utilized de-identified data available in the public domain, separate institutional ethical approval was not required.

: Not applicable. This study utilizes aggregated, anonymized data and does not contain any individual person’s data in any form that could lead to identification.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.