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Article History

Received: 18 December 2025

Accepted: 28 April 2026

First Online: 6 May 2026

Declarations

:

: The study was conducted using open-source and publicly available datasets. Clinical trial number: not applicable. The Scientific Ethics Committee of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China, approved the utilization of glioma tumor cell line (U373), experimental animals (severe combined immune deficiency, SCID mice) (Ethics approval number: No. XJTU1AF2022LSK-137). We confirm that all experiments were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. The maximal tumor burden was defined by humane endpoints. Tumor volumes were not directly measured, as tumors were intracranial. For the intracranial models, mice were euthanized at the first occurrence of any endpoint, including ≥20% body-weight loss from baseline, body-condition score ≤2/5, unrelieved or recurrent seizures, severe neurological deficit, inability to eat/drink, or moribund state. These limits were not exceeded in any experiment.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.