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Article History

Received: 30 March 2026

Accepted: 28 May 2026

First Online: 13 July 2026

Declarations

:

: Marc Evans is an editor-in-chief of Diabetes Therapy . Marc Evans was not involved in the selection of peer reviewers for the manuscript or any of the subsequent editorial decisions. Philip Newland-Jones: sponsorship for education events, research undertaken for, or fees received from, educational speaking from Abbott, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Dexcom, Sanofi, Eli Lilly, Novo Nordisk, Menarini and Roche. Partha Kar: educational meetings: Eli Lilly, Novo Nordisk, Sanofi, Napp, Takeda, Boehringer Ingelheim, Abbott, Dexcom, Medtronic, Insulet, and AstraZeneca. Beth Kelly: no relevant conflicts of interest. Rahul Mohan: consulting fees: Abbott, Dexcom, Eli Lilly and Roche; speaking fees: Abbott, Eli Lilly, A. Menarini, Boehringer-Ingelheim and Daiichi Sankyo. Sarah Davies: funding for speaking and attending conferences: Abbott, Lily, Boehringer Ingelheim, Roche, Astra Zeneca, Mennarini, Dexcom, Daaich Sankyo and Novo Nordisk. Jane Diggle: current committee member and former co-vice chair of Primary Care Diabetes and Obesity Society; editor-in-chief of Diabetes and Primary Care journal; member of the Insights for Diabetes Excellence, Access and Learning (iDEAL) Advisory Group; tutor for iHeed Post-Graduate Diploma in Diabetes (University of Warwick); funding for educational session provision and documents, and advisory board attendance: Abbott, Bayer, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim Eli Lilly, Menarini, Novo Nordisk, Roche, Sanofi, Sciarc GmbH, Sherborne Gibbs Limited and Tetris. Kevin Fernando: speaker fees from AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Dexcom, Daiichi Sankyo, Lilly, Menarini, Grunenthal, Boston Scientific, Sinocare and Novo Nordisk; consultancy fees from Dexcom, Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly, Roche, Oviva, Idorsia, Grunenthal, Boston Scientific and Abbvie; conference registration and subsistence from Menarini, Bayer, Daiichi Sankyo and Lilly. Debbie Hicks: no relevant conflicts of interest. Naresh Kanumilli: current roles: PCDS trustee, DUKPCOC committee member, GM diabetes board chair, GM and EC SCN clinical lead; honorary clinical advisor for primary care GMCRN; honoraria/travel grants: AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly, MSD, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Roche, Sanofi and Menarini; research support: AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly, MSD, Novartis, Janssen, Novo Nordisk, Roche and Sanofi; speaker’s bureau: AstraZeneca, Menarini Group, Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly, MSD, Napp, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Roche, Amgen and Sanofi. Nicola Milne: member of Diabetes UK Council of Health Care Professionals, co-vice chair and trustee of Primary Care Diabetes and Obesity Society; editorial board member for Journal of Diabetes Nursing and Journal of Diabetes and Primary Care ; member of Diabetes UK Research and Study Group (Group 6: Complications of Diabetes); DiaST lead (Northenden and Brooklands PCN; now CVKM lead); tutor I-Heed (Warwick University) Diabetes Diploma; work for Omniamed Publications Company: Journal of Diabetes Nursing and honorarium for journal articles/work on educational diabetes modules and diabetes educational presentations; co-author of “The Oxford Handbook of Diabetes Nursing”: second edition; honorarium for presenting/speaking/chairing at diabetes educational events, sponsorship for conference attendance under ABPI (declared) AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly Diabetes, Abbott, Novo Nordisk, Sanofi, MyLan, Dexcom, Menarini, Roche and Daiichi Sankyo; advisory board participation for Abbott, Lilly Diabetes, Sanofi, Menarini and Roche. Dipesh Patel: honoraria from consultancy work, clinical trials or education: AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, GLG, Lilly, Medpace, Menarini and Novo Nordisk. Samuel Seidu: speaker honoraria from AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Janssen, Lilly, MSD, Abbott, Novo Nordisk, SB Communications, OmniaMed Communications, Roche, Napp Pharmaceuticals, NB Medical and Amgen; advisory board honoraria from AstraZeneca, Lilly, Boehringer Ingelheim, Janssen, Abbott, MSD, Novo Nordisk, Takeda and Sanofi; educational grants from Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly, Novo Nordisk and Takeda and conference registration; subsistence from Boehringer Ingelheim, Janssen, Lilly, Novo Nordisk, Abbott and Takeda. Adie Viljoen: lecturing honoraria for education, conduction of clinical research trials, advisory consultation and/or travel support funding to attend education events: Amgen, Boehringer Ingelheim, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, Kailera, Menarini, New Amsterdam, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Sanofi and Ultragenyx. David C. Wheeler: led or served on trials committees funded by AstraZeneca, Bayer, Alnylam/Roche, CSL-Vifor, Inversage/Novo Nordisk and Tricida. leadership of or service on data safety monitoring boards funded by Aion, Dimerix, Eledon, Galderma, Janssen, CSL-Vifor, Pathaly, ProKidney, Sana, Senya, Synthekine, Takeda and Vertex. Received honoraria for talks and/or consultancy from AstraZeneca, Astellas, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Emerald Clinical (formally George Clinical), Glaxo Smith Kline, HighTide, KDIGO, Mineralys, PureSpring and Silence. John P.H. Wilding: consultancy/advisory board work for the pharmaceutical industry contracted via the University of Liverpool (no personal payment): Alnylam, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Cytoki, Kailera, Lilly, Menarini, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, Prosciento, Response Pharmaceuticals, Rhythm Pharmaceuticals, Saniona and Shionogi; funding for clinical trials: Amgen, AstraZeneca, Lilly and Novo Nordisk; personal honoraria/lecture fees: Abbvie, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Medscape, Novo Nordisk and Menarini.

: This article is based on previously conducted studies and does not involve any new studies of human or animal subjects. Some authors were involved in studies discussed within the paper that included human subjects, all of which complied with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki and used protocols that had been approved by relevant institutional review boards/ethics committees and included patients who had provided written informed consent.