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Article History

Received: 14 March 2026

Accepted: 16 June 2026

First Online: 29 June 2026

Declarations

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: This study was conducted in strict accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NIH Publication No. 8023), and China’s Measures for the Ethical Review of Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects. Formal ethical approval was granted by the Medical Ethics Committee of Shanxi Provincial People’s Hospital (Approval No.: 2022 − 264), and written informed consent was obtained from all human participants prior to their enrollment in the study. To ensure animal welfare, predefined humane endpoints were established based on tumor burden and overall health status. Animals were humanely euthanized immediately upon reaching any of the following criteria: tumor diameter exceeding 1.5 cm, tumor volume surpassing 1500 mm³, body weight loss exceeding 20% relative to baseline, or observable impairment in normal physiological functions such as mobility or feeding. All commercial colorectal cancer cell lines were sourced from Shanghai Jinyuan Biotechnology Co., Ltd. and authenticated via short tandem repeat (STR) profiling. The authors declare no competing financial interests or conflicts of interest.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.