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Article History

Received: 22 October 2025

Accepted: 6 February 2026

First Online: 19 March 2026

Declarations

:

: Andrew Chan received research support from Biogen, CSL Behring, Genzyme, Roche, UCB, SNF and the European Union; received speaker honoraria and fees for consultancy and advisory boards from Argenx, Alexion, Amgen, Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, Horizon Therapeutics, Janssen/J&J, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi, Sandoz, Teva and UCB. Magnus Andersson received honoraria as a speaker and adviser from Merck and Sanofi. Raed Alroughani received honoraria as a speaker and for serving on scientific advisory boards from Bayer, Biogen, Merck, Novartis, Roche, and Sanofi. Massimiliano Calabrese received speaker honoraria and fees for consultancy and advisory boards from Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck Serono, Amgen, Novartis, Sanofi and Roche and received research support from the Progressive RMS Alliance and Italian Minister of Health and Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck Serono, Novartis, and Roche. Eva Kubala Havrdová has received fees for consultancy, advisory board and clinical trials from Novartis, Biogen, Merck, Teva, Genzyme/ Sanofi, Roche, BMS/Celgene, Janssen. Ahmed Z. Obeidat has received personal compensation for participation in scientific advisory boards, steering committees, and/or speaking engagements from Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Banner Life Sciences, BD Biosciences, Biogen, Biologix Solutions, Bristol Myers Squibb, Celgene, EMD Serono, Genentech, GW Pharmaceuticals, Horizon Therapeutics, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Sandoz, Sanofi/Genzyme, TG Therapeutics, and Viela Bio. Klaus Schmierer has received research support, through Queen Mary University of London, from Biogen, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Sandoz, and Sanofi; speaking honoraria from, and/or served in an advisory role for, Biogen, EMD Serono Research & Development Institute, Inc., Billerica, MA, USA, an affiliate of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany, Merck, Neuraxpharm, Novartis, Roche, and Sanofi; and remuneration for teaching activities from AcadeMe and Medscape. Jerome de Seze has received fees for consultancy, advisory board and clinical trials from UCB, Novartis, Biogen, Merck, Teva, Genzyme/ Sanofi, Roche, Alexion, BMS/Celegene, Janssen, Horizon Therapeutics. Louise Bek is an employee of Merck Healthcare KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany. Carine Savarin is an employee of Merck Santé S.A.S., Lyon, France, an affiliate of Merck KGaA. Julie Korich is an employee of EMD Serono, Inc., Boston, MA, USA, an affiliate of Merck KGaA. Luca Bonsignore is an employee of Merck (Schweiz) AG, Zug, Switzerland, an affiliate of Merck KGaA.

: This review article is based on previously conducted studies and the clinical expertise of the authors in treating patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis. No new clinical studies were performed by the authors. No patient-specific efficacy or safety data were reported; therefore, institutional review board (IRB)/ethics approval was not required.