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Article History

Received: 12 December 2025

Accepted: 9 February 2026

First Online: 27 February 2026

Declarations

:

: Paola Zaratin, Giampaolo Brichetto and Angelo Ghezzi declare no competing interests. Paola Zaratin and Angelo Ghezzi are Editorial Board members of the Neurology and Therapy journal. Paola and Angelo were not involved in the selection of peer reviewers for the manuscript nor any of the subsequent editorial decisions. Maria Pia Amato has received research grants by the National MS Society, Canadian MS Society, Italian Health Ministry, Regione Toscana, Bayer, Biogen, Merck, Novartis, Sanofi Genzyme, Teva, Almirall, Roche, and honoraria as a speaker and member of advisory boards by Bayer, Biogen, Merck, Novartis, Sanofi Genzyme, Teva, Almirall, Roche, Celgene BMS, and Sandoz. Anne Helme is employed by the Multiple Sclerosis International Federation (MSIF), which receives income from a wide range of sources, including healthcare and other companies: Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, Coloplast, F. Hoffman-La Roche, Merck, Novartis, Sandoz, Sanofi, and Viatris. Anne Helme declares no personal conflicts of interest. Brenda Banwell serves as a consultant to Novartis, Roche, and UCB.

: This article is based on previously conducted studies and does not contain any new studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.