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Article History

Received: 25 February 2026

Accepted: 25 March 2026

First Online: 10 April 2026

Declarations

:

: Paolo Preziosa received speaker honoraria from Roche, Biogen, Novartis, Merck, Bristol Myers Squibb, Genzyme, Horizon, and Sanofi. Giorgio Guido has nothing to disclose. Massimo Filippi is Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Neurology , Associate Editor of Human Brain Mapping , Neurological Sciences , and Radiology ; received compensation for consulting services from Almirall, Biogen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Merck, Novartis, Roche, and Sanofi; speaking activities from Amgen, Bayer, Biogen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Celgene, Chiesi Italia SpA, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Fujirebio, Genzyme, Janssen, Merck, Neopharmed Gentili, Neuraxpharm, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Roche, Sanofi, and Takeda, participation in Advisory Boards for Alexion, Biogen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, GE Healthcare Ltd, Merck, Neuraxpharm, Novartis, Roche, Sandoz, Sanofi, and Takeda; scientific direction of educational events for Biogen, Merck, Roche, Celgene, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Lilly, Novartis, and Sanofi-Genzyme; he receives research support from Biogen Idec, Merck-Serono, Novartis, Roche, the Italian Ministry of Health, the Italian Ministry of University and Research, and Fondazione Italiana Sclerosi Multipla. Maria A. Rocca received consulting fees from Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, and Roche and speaker honoraria from Alexion, Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, Celgene, Horizon Therapeutics Italy, Merck Serono SpA, Mitsubishi-Tanabe Pharma, Neuraxpharm, Novartis, Roche, Sandoz, and Sanofi. She receives research support from the MS Society of Canada, the Italian Ministry of Health, the Italian Ministry of University and Research, and Fondazione Italiana Sclerosi Multipla. She is Associate Editor for Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders and Associate Co-Editor for Europe and Africa for Multiple Sclerosis Journal . She is also an Editorial Board member of Neurology and Therapy . She was not involved in the selection of peer reviewers for the manuscript nor any of the subsequent editorial decisions.

: This article is based on previously conducted studies and does not contain any new studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.