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Article History

Received: 27 February 2026

Accepted: 23 April 2026

First Online: 7 May 2026

Declarations

:

: Financial arrangements of the authors with companies whose products may be related to the present report are listed as declared by the authors: Wolfgang H. Jost serves as an advisor and speaker for AbbVie, Bial, Desitin, Stada, UCB, and Zambon. Filip Bergquist has received advisory and lecture fees from AbbVie and research support in kind from Global Kinetics Corporation. Andrew Evans has received honoraria AbbVie, Abbott, STADA, Pfizer, Ipsen, Encapsulate, Seqirus, Bluerock for presentations, grant support from the Michael J. Fox Foundation, the National Health and Medical Research Council, and has been a scientific advisory board member for AbbVie and STADA. Sharon Hassin-Baer is a study investigator and an advisor for AbbVie; has received funding/grant support from AbbVie; speaker honoraria from AbbVie, Medison, and Allergan; has received consultancy fees from Neuroderm, Takeda, and Teva; and has received advisory fees from Teva and AbbVie. Robert A. Hauser has received speaking fees from Abbvie, Amneal Pharmaceuticals, Kyowa Kirin, Neurocrine Biosciences, and Supernus; has received consulting fees from Abbvie, ABLi Therapeutics, Amneal, Biogen, Cerevance, Cerevel, Clario, Forsee Pharmaceuticals, HanAll Biopharma, Inhibikase, Intrance (PSG), Kiefe RX, Kyowa Kirin, Mitsubishi Tanabe, Nano PharmaSolutions, Neurocrine, Neuroderm, NDP Pharmaceuticals, Photopharmics, Regenxbio, Revance, Serina Therapeutics, Stoparkinson, Sumitomo, Supernus, Theravance, Truebinding, UCB, and Zambon; serves on a scientific advisory board for Stoparkinson, Inhibikase, and PhotoPharmics; has stock options in Enterin, Inhibikase, and Axial Therapeutics; has received intellectual property interests from a PD Diary through his University; acknowledges a Center of Excellence grant from the Parkinson Foundation; and Robert A. Hauser’s University has received research support from Abbvie, Inc., Amneal Pharmaceuticals, Annovis Bio Inc, Biogen MA, Inc., Cavion, Inc., Cerevance Beta, Inc., Cerevel Therapeutics, Enterin, F. Hoffman La Roche Ltd, Genentech, Inc., Global Kinetics Corporation, Inhibikase Therapeutics, Michael J Fox Foundation, Motric Bio, Inc., NeuroDerm Ltd, Sage Therapeutics, Scion NeuroStim, Sun Pharma Advanced Research Company, Ltd., Teva Branded Pharmaceuticals, Truebinding, Inc., UCB, and UCB Biopharma SRL. Tove Henriksen has served as a speaker for AbbVie, Britannia, Convatec, Ipsen, Lundbeck, Neuoderm, and Nordic Infucare; is a primary investigator for the M15—741 and M15—737 studies and a study sponsored by Britannia; and is a board member of a data monitoring committee for a Lundbeck-sponsored study. Irene A. Malaty has participated in research funded by AbbVie, Aevum, Dystonia Coalition, Emalex, Neuroderm, Parkinson Foundation, Praxis, Revance, and Sage but has no owner interest in any pharmaceutical company; has received consulting fees from AbbVie and Aevum; has received travel compensation or honoraria from Medscape, Parkinson Study Group, and Parkinson Foundation; and has received royalties from Robert Rose Publishers. Tiago A. Mestre has received research support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Ontario Research Fund, Michael J Fox Foundation, Parkinson Canada, University of Ottawa/Parkinson Research Consortium, Weston Brain Foundation; has received personal compensation as a consultant for AbbVie, CHDI, Sunovion, Valeo Pharma, Roche, Biogen, nQ Medical; and has received personal compensation as honoraria and for speakers bureau for AbbVie, Valeo Pharma. Pablo Mir has received financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, the Instituto de Salud Carlos III-Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional, Consejería de Economía, Innovación, Ciencia y Empleo de la Junta de Andalucía, the Consejería de Salud y Bienestar Social de la Junta de Andalucía the Consejería de Transformación Económica, Industria, Conocimiento y Universidades de la Junta de Andalucía; and has received support for attending meetings and/or travel or honorarium for lecturing from Abbott, Allergan, AbbVie, Bial, Britannia, Italfarmaco, Merz, UCB, Teva, and Zambon. Ramon Rodriguez has been a consultant and/or speaker for AbbVie, Eisai, Teva, Neurocrine, Kyowa Kirin, and has received research support from Cerevel, Cerevance, Teva, Neurocrine, CND Life Sciences, Eli Lilly, Eisai, Biogen, Neuroderm, MTPA, Koneksa, ACR, and Teva. Petra Schwingenschuh has received consulting and speaking honoraria from AbbVie, Bial, BostonScientific, Merz, and Stada; has served as an investigator in clinical trials sponsored by AbbVie, Britannia, Roche, and Takeda; reports grants from the FWF Austrian Science Fund; and is a member of the MDS Clinical Neurophysiology and Tremor Study Groups. Mihaela Simu has received honoraria for lectures at symposia and consultant fees from AbbVie, AOP Orphan, BI, KRKA, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi, Servier, Teva, and UCB. Lars Bergmann, Teresa T. Zhou, Sarah Caughlin, Mallika Gopalkrishnan, Pavnit Kukreja, Marie O’Meara, Juan Carlos Parra, and Megha B. Shah are employees of AbbVie and may own stocks/shares in the company. Jason Aldred is a study investigator for AbbVie, AC Immune, Annovis, Aptinyx, AstraZeneca, Atara, Athira, Biogen, Biovie, Boston Scientific, Celgene, Cerevance, Cerevel, Denali, EIP, Eli Lilly, Impax, Inhibikase, IRL Therapeutics, Merz, Neuraly, Neurocrine, Neuoderm, Novartis, PD Gene/PSG, Praxis, Revance, Roche/Genentech, Sage, Sanofi/Genzyme, Scion Neurostem, Takeda, Theravance, Triplet/HSG, and UCB, and has received honorarium from Abbott, AbbVie, Allergan (now AbbVie), Boston Scientific, Medtronic, Teva, and US World Meds.

: This study is approved by all global institutions and conducted in accordance with Advarra (central institutional review board; reference number: 00023875); Ethics (Helsinki) Committee at the Sheba Medical Center (0660—23-SMC); Ethics Committee for Investigation with Medicinal Products at Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda University Hospital (178/23); Ethics Committee of the Medical University of Graz (36—261 ex 23/24); Ethics Committee of the State Medical Association of Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart (B-F-2023—115); Institutional Review Board (00005790); Ottawa Health Science Network Research Ethics Board (20240555—01H) Royal Melbourne Hospital Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC/103037/MH-2023); Scientific Ethics Committee (none available); and Swedish Ethical Review Board (2023—06693—01) guidelines. Documentation of ethics approval from each country, and their respective institutions, can be found in Supplementary Material 2. Patients consented to fully comply with study-related procedures and prior to their initiation, each patient or legal authorized representative voluntarily signed an Authorization for Use/Disclosure of Data informed consent form according to national regulations after the study was explained and patients’ questions were answered.

: Wolfgang H. Jost, Filip Bergquist, Andrew Evans, Sharon Hassin-Baer, Robert A. Hauser, Tove Henriksen, Irene A. Malaty, Tiago A. Mestre, Pablo Mir, Ramon Rodriguez, Petra Schwingenschuh, Mihaela Simu, and Jason Aldred were study investigators.