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Article History

Received: 6 August 2025

Accepted: 1 September 2025

First Online: 19 September 2025

Declarations

:

: This study involved secondary analysis of anonymised, publicly available data from Understanding Society: The UK Household Longitudinal Study. Ethical approval for data collection in Understanding Society was granted by the University of Essex Ethics Committee. Additional approvals for biomedical components (e.g. nurse visits and biomarker data) were obtained from the National Research Ethics Service (NRES). As this was a secondary analysis of anonymised data, no further ethical approval was required for the present study.

: As this study involved secondary data analysis, no ethical approval or informed consent was required by the authors for this research, as it qualifies for exemption from human subjects’ research.

: Not applicable. This study involved secondary analysis of anonymised, publicly available data and qualifies for exemption from human subjects’ research.

: All participants in Understanding Society study engaged willingly and with full understanding of the research, having provided informed and voluntary consent prior to their involvement.

: The authors declare no competing interests.