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Article History

Received: 27 October 2025

Accepted: 3 February 2026

First Online: 3 March 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors are cofounders of PrevEp, Inc. (Bethesda, MD, USA). Wolfgang Löscher has received consulting fees (2020–2024) from Addex/Neurosterix, Angelini Pharma, Atlas Venture, Axonis, Lundbeck, Axonis Therapeutics, Clexio Biosciences, Cogent Biosolutions, Ovid, Idorsia, ND Capital, Sintetica, SynapCell, and Selene Therapeutics, and has received research support from the German Research Foundation (Bonn, Germany). Pavel Klein has served as a consultant, advisory board member or speaker (2020–2024) for Abbott, Angelini Pharma, Aquestive, Arvelle Therapeutics, Aucta Pharmaceuticals, Dr Reddy's, Eisai, GRIN Therapeutics, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Longboard Pharmaceuticals, Neurelis, Inc., Neurona, Paladin, SK Life Science, Sunovion, UCB Pharma, UNEEG, UniQure, and Xenon Pharma, is a member of the Medical Advisory Board of Stratus and of the Scientific Advisory Boards of OB Pharma and of NEUmirna, and has received research support from CURE/Department of Defense and from the NIH/SBIR. Eugen Trinka reports personal fees from EVER Pharma, Marinus, Arvelle, Angelini, Argenx, Alexion, Medtronic, BIAL, NewBridge, GL Pharma, GlaxoSmithKline, Boehringer Ingelheim, LivaNova, Lundbeck, Eisai, UCB, Biogen, Sanofi, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, STOKE Therapeutics, Rapport, and Actavis. He is co-director of the European Consortium on Epilepsy Trials (ECET). His institution received grants from Biogen, UCB Pharma, Eisai, Red Bull, Merck, Bayer, the European Union, FWF Österreichischer Fond zur Wissenschaftsforderung, Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und Forschung, and Jubiläumsfond der Österreichischen Nationalbank. None related to the presented work. Eugen Trinka is an Editorial Board member of CNS Drugs. He was not involved in the selection of peer reviewers for the manuscript nor any of the subsequent editorial decisions. Matthias Koepp or his department has received grants from Angelini, Biohavn, UCB, and Xenon, has received consulting fees from Angelini, Bial, Biocodex, Eisai, Jazz Pharma, LivaNova, Sanofi, and UCB Pharma, is co-founder of PrevEp, Inc., and has received research funding from the MRC, Wellcome Trust, Epilepsy Research UK, Epilepsy Society UK, UCLH Foundation Trust, and Henry Smith Foundation.

: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current review are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: Idea origination—WL; outline creation/revision—WL, PK, and CR; literature search/data analysis—WL, PK, and CR; drafted manuscript—WL, PK, and CR; critically revised manuscript—WL, PK, CR, MK, and ET; all authors have read and approved the final submitted manuscript and agree to be accountable for the work.