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Article History

Received: 17 February 2026

Accepted: 13 May 2026

First Online: 15 June 2026

Declarations

:

: Robert H. Dworkin, PhD, since January 1, 2023, has received research grants and contracts from the US FDA and the US National Institutes of Health, and compensation for serving on advisory boards or consulting on clinical trial methods from Aditum, Akigai, Allay, AM-Pharma, Beckley, Biogen, Biohaven, Biosplice, Bsense, Cardialen, Centrexion, Chiesi, Clexio, Coalition for Aligning Sciences, Collegium, CombiGene, Confo, Contineum, Eccogene, Editas, Eli Lilly, Emmes, Epizon, Ethismos (equity), Eurofarma, Exicure, GlaxoSmithKline, Glenmark, JCARE, JucaBio, Kriya, Latigo, Mainstay, Maxona, Merck, Mind Medicine (also equity), Nocicera, Noema, Orion, Q-State, Regenacy, Rho, Salvia, Sangamo, Scilex, Semnur, SIMR Biotech, SiteOne, Sparian, SPM Therapeutics, SPRIM Health, Tiefenbacher, Validae, Vertanical, Ventus, Vertex, Viscera, and WCG. All other authors have no conflicts of interest relevant to the article to declare.

: Not applicable. This study did not involve human participants, animals, or identifiable personal data, and therefore did not require institutional ethics committee review or approval.

: Not applicable. No human participants were involved in this study.

: Not applicable. No human participants were involved in this study.

: The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

: Not applicable. No custom code or software was used in the preparation of this study.

: EW, AC, LH, and RD contributed to the study conception and design. EW, AC, and LH performed the research and collected the data. EW, AC, MS, and RD analyzed and interpreted the data. EW drafted the initial manuscript, and AC, MS, RT, and RD critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors have read and approved the final version, and agree to be accountable for the work.