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Article History

First Online: 6 January 2020

Compliance with ethical standards

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: This work was supported, in part, by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases of the National Institutes of Health under award number K23DK109202.

: HS, EV, and ESO have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this article. NC is paid for ongoing consulting activities (or was in the preceding 12 months) with NuSirt, Abbvie, Afimmune (DS Biopharma), Allergan (Tobira), Madrigal, Coherus, Siemens, Centurion, and Genentech, generally in the areas of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and drug hepatotoxicity; receives research grant support for his institution from Exact Sciences, Intercept, and Galectin Therapeutics; and has, over the last decade, served as a paid consultant to more than 35 pharmaceutical companies, all of which have regularly been disclosed to his institutional authorities. None of these activities are relevant to this article. RPM and GMS are employees of and shareholders in Gilead Sciences, Inc. HHS and AEA are employees of Galectin Therapeutics, Inc.

: Both studies were approved by the appropriate institutional review boards and were conducted in compliance with regulatory requirements.

: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the studies.