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Article History

Accepted: 24 July 2025

First Online: 12 August 2025

Declarations

:

: None.

: HCH is currently an employee of Merck & Co., Inc; however, this work was conducted and completed when HCH was at University of Illinois Chicago. DRT is a paid consultant by AstraZeneca, eMax Health, Horizon Pharmaceuticals, and Stage Analytics. He is also the PI on grants or contracts paid to the University of Illinois Chicago by Takeda Pharmaceuticals, AbbVie, and the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review. He receives royalties for economic models licensed to the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review. All remaining authors have no relevant conflicts to declare.

: This study was determined to be non-human subject research by the University of Illinois Chicago Institutional Review Board and did not require any ethics approval because only simulated data and de-identified real-world data were used.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: The simulation data that support the findings of this study are not included in this article due to the number of the simulations and the size of the data, The simulation data are, however, available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The detailed information on generating simulation data are available within the paper and its Supplementary Materials. The data that support the findings of the real-world examples of this study are available from the authors but restrictions apply based on usage agreement license from University of Illinois Chicago, Department of Pharmacy, System, Outcomes, and Policy, and so are not publicly available.

: The codes for both simulation and real-world examples are available upon request.

: Concept and design: HCH, TAL; acquisition of data: HCH, TAL; analysis and interpretation of data: HCH, MT, SA, TAL; drafting of the manuscript: HCH, TAL; critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: HCH, DRT, MT, GTS, SA, TAL; statistical analysis: HCH, TAL; provision of patients or study materials: HCH; administrative, technical, or logistic support: GTS, TAL; and supervision: DRT, MT, TAL. All authors have read and approve the final version of the manuscript.