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Article History

Accepted: 11 May 2025

First Online: 18 June 2025

Declarations

:

: This work was supported by grant R01DA039192 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse. The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

: The authors (J.W., M.R., J.B., R.A., and Y.K.) declare that they have no conflicts of interest that might be relevant to the contents of this manuscript. Rajender Aparasu is an Editorial Board member of Drugs & Aging. Rajender Aparasu was not involved in the selection of peer reviewers for the manuscript nor any of the subsequent editorial decisions.

: The use of the 20% National Medicare data was approved by the University of Texas Medical Branch Institutional Review Board.

: Not applicable.

: The data used in this study are not publicly available and require a DUA from the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services.

: Not applicable.

: Jordan Westra—conceptualization, methodology, validation, data curation, formal analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing, visualization, and project administration; Mukaila Raji—conceptualization, methodology, funding acquisition, and writing—review and editing; Jacques Baillargeon—conceptualization, methodology, and writing—review and editing; Rajender Aparasu—conceptualization, methodology, and writing—review and editing; Yong-Fang Kuo—conceptualization, methodology, funding acquisition, supervision, project administration, and writing—review and editing.