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Article History

Accepted: 13 July 2025

First Online: 28 July 2025

Declarations

:

: This work was supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse [grant number R15DA046036 to Y.Y.]. The sponsor had no role in any aspect of design, methods, subject recruitment, data collection, analysis, and preparation of the paper.

: Dr. Yang received a subcontract from the Jackson Heart Study (NIH – NHLBI). Dr. Ramachandran received grants or contracts from the AMCP Foundation, the Pharmacy Quality Alliance, and the Mississippi Division of Medicaid; consulted for the Pharmacy Quality Alliance and served as a co-chair of the Quality Measure Expert Panel, Pharmacy Quality Alliance. Dr. Bhattacharya received a subcontract from the Jackson Heart Study (NIH – NHLBI); received grants or contracts from the Mississippi State Department of Health and the Mississippi Division of Medicaid and served as a member engagement co-chair in the Real World Evidence Special Interest Group at the International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research. Dr. Eriator received support for attending a National Science Foundation meeting. Dr. Bentley received grants or contracts from the Mississippi State Department of Health, the Mississippi Division of Medicaid, and the Pharmacy Quality Alliance and consulted for the Pharmacy Quality Alliance. All other authors report no conflicts of interests for this work.

: The data for this study were obtained from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) under a research agreement and are not publicly available.

: This study was approved by the University of Mississippi Institutional Review Board (Protocol #24x-222).

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: Not publicly available.

: K.B., S.B., S.R., J.P.B., and Y.Y. contributed to the study concept and design. K.B. and S.B. were responsible for data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation. Statistical analysis was conducted by K.B. and S.B. J.P.B. and Y.Y. provided administrative, technical, or material support. The initial draft of the manuscript was prepared by K.B., S.B., I.L. J.P.B. and Y.Y. supervised the study. All authors critically reviewed and revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors read and approved of the final manuscript.