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Article History

Received: 29 March 2025

Accepted: 1 December 2025

First Online: 17 March 2026

Declarations

:

: RH declares a financial—non-personal, non-specific interest, having delivered educational workshops on health economics, medicines management and HTA for cancer specialists supported by unrestricted sponsorship by the pharmaceutical industry and an industry association (March 2019). No fees were received personally. Not specific to the topic of the review. GYHL: Consultant and speaker for BMS/Pfizer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Daiichi-Sankyo, Anthos. No fees are received personally. He is a National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Senior Investigator and co-PI of the AFFIRMO project on multimorbidity in AF (grant agreement No 899871), TARGET project on digital twins for personalized management of atrial fibrillation and stroke (grant agreement No 101136244) and ARISTOTELES project on artificial intelligence for management of chronic long term conditions (grant agreement No 101080189), which are all funded by the EU’s Horizon Europe Research & Innovation programme.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: Codes will be available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

: Not applicable.

: Template data collection form, data extracted, analytical code and any other study documents will be available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

: Conceptualization: GYHL, RW, GC, SD, RH and TG; methodology: GYHL, RW, GC, SD, RH and TG; formal analysis: GC and TG; investigation: GYHL, RW, GC, SD, RH and TG; data curation: GC and TG; writing—original draft: TG; writing—review and editing: GYHL, RW, GC, SD, RH and TG; visualization: TG; final approval: GYHL, RW, GC, SD, RH and TG.