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Article History

Received: 17 July 2025

Accepted: 23 November 2025

First Online: 14 January 2026

Declarations

:

: Gunjeet Kaur, Ole F. Norheim, Owen O’Donnell, Mike Paulden and Shrathinth Venkatesh have no conflicts. of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this article. Richard Cookson has conducted related research on health inequality supported by the NIHR and Wellcome Trust, has advised various health agencies on related health inequality issues, and has received funding from various pharmaceutical and consultancy firms for related health inequality methods training and advice. Tim Doran and Ieva Skarda have conducted related research on health inequality supported by the NIHR and Wellcome Trust.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: RC: conceptualisation; methodology; writing (original draft); writing (review and editing); supervision; project administration; funding acquisition. GK: formal analysis; data curation; software; writing (review and editing). IS: formal analysis; data curation; software; visualisation; writing (review and editing). SV: formal analysis; writing (review and editing). TD: validation; writing (review and editing). ON: writing (review and editing). MP: methodology; writing (review and editing). OO: conceptualisation; methodology; validation; writing (original draft); writing (review and editing). All authors read and approved the final manuscript.