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Article History

Accepted: 21 April 2025

First Online: 7 May 2025

Declarations

:

: World Rugby funded this research project.

: C.O. is partly funded by the Rugby Football League and has received funding from Prevent Biometrics and World Rugby. T.S. is partly funded by Premiership Rugby and World Rugby. G.R. role is partly funded by World Rugby and Premiership Rugby. J.T. is partly funded by the Rugby Football League, Premiership Rugby and World Rugby. B.J. is employed by Premiership Rugby and Rugby Football League as a consultant and has received research funding from Prevent Biometrics and World Rugby. M.C. is employed by Premiership Rugby. L.S. and É.F. are employed by World Rugby. S.H. is funded by the Rugby Football Union and Premiership Rugby. K.S. and S.K. are employed by the Rugby Football Union. J.B. is part funded by World Rugby. R.T. is employed by World Rugby as a consultant.

: This project was approved by the Leeds Beckett University Ethics Committee (ref. no.: 108638). This study was performed in accordance with the standards of ethics outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki.

: All participants provided written consent.

: Not applicable.

: All data relevant to the study are included in the article or uploaded as supplementary information. Anonymised data are available upon reasonable request.

: Code for analyses will be available upon reasonable request.

: C.O., J.T., T.S., G.R. and B.J. conceptualised the research project and study design. C.O. and T.S. conducted formal statistical analysis and presentation of results. All authors critically reviewed and edited the manuscript prior to submission.