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Authors
Paines, Emily https://orcid.org/0009-0000-0928-7536
Milligan, Gemma https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3539-915X
Tipton, Mike https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7928-8451
Roberts, Andrew
Rawcliffe, Alex J. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0942-7185
Burbage, Jenny https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7028-0381
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
HQ Army Individual Training Command (700610368)
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Article History
Accepted: 23 November 2025
First Online: 15 December 2025
Declarations
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: Emily Paines, Gemma Milligan, Mike Tipton, Andrew Roberts, Alex J. Rawcliffe and Jenny Burbage have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this article.
: The three inter-connected studies gained favourable ethical opinion from the Ministry of Defence (MOD) research ethics committee (2036/MODREC/21; 2128/MODREC/22; 2196/MODREC/22) and were performed in accordance with the standards of ethics outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki.
: All participants provided written informed consent.
: The participant in Fig. has provided consent for their photo to be used in this publication.
: Processed data and additional results are available in the ESM. The raw data generated in this study are the property of the Ministry of Defence and access may be granted upon an approved request through the corresponding author.
: The code used in this study is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
: JB and ARa conceived the study and secured funding. All authors designed the study protocol. Data collection was performed by EP with support from ARa. EP conducted the data analysis with input from JB and GM. EP and JB drafted the manuscript, and all authors contributed to critical revision of the text for important intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
