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Article History

Received: 15 November 2025

Revised: 2 April 2026

Accepted: 20 April 2026

First Online: 26 May 2026

Declarations

:

: This study analyzed publicly available, de-identified data from the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Public Use Files and did not involve any direct contact with human participants or the collection of identifiable information. The research protocol was reviewed and approved by the National Cheng Kung University Human Research Ethics Committee (REC No. 112—095; approval date: 1 April 2025). In accordance with the committee’s determination and OECD data-use conditions, informed consent to participate and consent to publish were not applicable.

: Not applicable. The manuscript uses anonymized secondary data (PISA 2018/2022) and contains no individual person’s details, images, or videos.

: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.