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Article History

Received: 15 August 2025

Accepted: 20 October 2025

First Online: 15 November 2025

Declarations

:

: Bristol Myers Squibb is the owner of nivolumab, a treatment considered in this manuscript. Stefano Lucherini, Lien Vo, and Joel Russell were employees of Bristol Myers Squibb at the time this research was conducted and may own Bristol Myers Squibb stock. Mack Harris, Sandra Milev, Ariel Sun, and Ben White were all employees of Evidera at the time this research was conducted, which received funding from Bristol Myers Squibb to conduct the study. However, none of these authors received any direct remuneration, compensation, or honoraria from Bristol Myers Squibb (i.e., only their standard Evidera salaries). Thor-Henrik Brodtkorb and James Brockbank are employees of RTI Health Solutions, which received funding from Bristol Myers Squibb to conduct the study. However, none of these authors received any direct remuneration, compensation, or honoraria from Bristol Myers Squibb (i.e., only their standard RTI Health Solutions salaries).

: In conducting the study, no ethics approval or institutional review board (IRB) approval was required, because the study comprises a model with only simulated patients. The authors had necessary permissions to access and use data from the databases cited in this study.