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Article History

Received: 8 October 2025

Accepted: 15 January 2026

First Online: 4 February 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: CHARLS was approved by the Biomedical Ethics Review Committee of Peking University (IRB00001052-11015), and KLoSA by the National Statistical Office (Approval No. 33602).

: All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

: All participating studies were approved by Institutional Review Boards and the respondents provided written informed consent. Additional ethical approval was not required for this analysis of the anonymised data.