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Authors
Hu, Congyin https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0735-7074
Cao, Shuang
Yu, Zhixiang
Lai, Ziwen
Song, Weibo
Jiang, Fengjiao
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
the Open Project of Tianjin Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Detection Technology and System (024LODTS124)
the 2022 Liaoning Provincial Natural Science Foundation Program Key Science and Technology Innovation Base Joint Open Fund (2022-KF-18-04)
Shanghai Municipal Commission of Education (C2024090)
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Article History
Received: 13 November 2025
Accepted: 2 February 2026
First Online: 14 March 2026
Declarations
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: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
: The research presented in this manuscript did not involve human participants, human data, or human tissue. All datasets used for this study (IAC-V1, IAC-V2, SemEval-2018, MUSTARD) are publicly available and were analyzed in anonymized form, in accordance with the platforms’ terms of service and standard ethical guidelines for computational research. Therefore, ethical approval was not required.
