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Article History

Received: 28 January 2025

Accepted: 28 July 2025

First Online: 1 October 2025

Statements and Declarations

:

: Not applicable

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: S.P.R. performed the primary analysis, developed the methodology, and wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. S.R.A.B. contributed to manuscript writing and content creation. F.R. contributed to manuscript writing and content creation. T.S. contributed specifically on the “Abstract,” “Introduction,” “Figure 1,” and “Future directions. ” T.M. worked specifically on “Introduction” and wrote “Future directions.” T.H. contributed to manuscript writing and content creation. M.H. contributed to manuscript writing and content creation. M.S.H. contributed to manuscript writing and content creation. T.H. conceptualized and provided guidance on “Hardware Trojan” and “Countermeasures.” P.C. provided expert guidance on “Physical attacks,” “Counterfeiting attacks,” and “Future directions.” P.R. conceptualized and supervised this research project and provided critical feedback on the manuscript.

: No datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

: This research did not involve any animal or human subjects