Document is current

Article History

Received: 1 October 2025

Accepted: 31 October 2025

First Online: 2 December 2025

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study is based exclusively on publicly available data collected from the online editions of major Spanish newspapers. All news articles and associated user comments were retrieved from the open-access sections of these outlets. Usernames and identifying details were automatically removed to ensure full anonymization prior to analysis. All data collection procedures complied with each platform’s terms of use and robots.txt guidelines. The research involves only aggregated, non-identifiable data obtained from public sources.