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Article History

Received: 9 December 2019

Accepted: 12 May 2020

First Online: 2 August 2020

Compliance with ethical standards

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: The empirical data that we used in this study are based on information from a popular online labor market platform, which is publicly available (i.e., the information is visible to all site visitors without the need to subscribe or log in to the platform). While conducting this study, we were careful to collect data in an ethical manner. First, we made sure to respect the platform’s constraints as to which part of its webpage could be accessed by web crawlers (as defined in its robots.txt file). Second, to impose minimal load on the platform’s servers during our crawls, we minimized our data collection whenever possible. Third, to ensure the privacy of the platforms’ users, we did not collect any identifying information. Finally, to prevent biasing the competition between different platforms, we decided to not disclose the name of the platform from which we collected the data and to not make the dataset openly available. However, to ensure reproducibility and transparency, we are open to sharing the data for scientific purposes under controlled conditions with an accompanying letter from an academic institutional review board. For these purposes, please contact the corresponding author.

: We implemented the model in NetLogo 6.0.4 (Wilensky 1999) and analyzed the results in R 3.5.1 (R Core Team 2012) and RStudio 1.1.456 (RStudio Team 2015) using the dplyr (Wickham et al. 2018, version 0.7.8) and ggplot2 (Wickham 2016, version 3.1.0) packages. Code for replicating all the figures is available in GitHub online repository at .

: On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.